Non-U.S. studies and more recent U.S. estimates find an even wider range (Gamkhar and Shah 2007). 2001; Jeon etal. When Subsidies for Pollution Abatement Increase Total Emissions, Water Quality and Economics: Willingness to Pay, Efficiency, Cost-effectiveness, and New Research Frontiers, Handbook on the Economics of Natural Resources, Evidence of the Effects of Water Quality on Residential Land Prices, Decentralization and Pollution Spillovers: Evidence from the Re-drawing of County Borders in Brazil, Taxation with Representation: Intergovernmental Grants in a Plebiscite Democracy, An Economic Analysis of Clean Water Act Issues, Contingent Valuation of Environmental Goods, A Symphonic Approach to Water Management: The Quest for New Models of Watershed Governance, Ex Post Evaluation of an Earmarked Tax on Air Pollution, Microeconometric Strategies for Dealing with Unobservables and Endogenous Variables in Recreation Demand Models, The Housing Market Impacts of Shale Gas Development, Efficient Pollution Regulation: Getting the Prices Right, Environmental Accounting for Pollution in the United States Economy, Handling Unobserved Site Characteristics in Random Utility Models of Recreational Demand, Presidential Veto Message: Nixon Vetoes Water Pollution Act, Review of Environmental Economics & Policy, Shale Gas Development Impacts on Surface Water Quality in Pennsylvania, Homeownership Returns, Tenure Choice and Inflation, Objective versus Subjective Measures of Water Clarity in Hedonic Property Value Models, Building a National Water Quality Monitoring Program, Why Is Pollution from U.S. Manufacturing Declining? Panel B analyzes how grants affect log mean rental values. A second general equilibrium channel is that the hedonic price function may have shifted. The main regression sample includes only a balanced panel of tracts that appear in all four censuses between 1970 and 2000; imputing values for missing homes hardly changes the ratio in column (4). For the few governments that do not report when their fiscal year ends, we assume they report by calendar year. Hence decreases in acidic sulfur air pollution may have contributed to decreases in acidic water pollution. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval. We recognize the potential importance of nonuse values for clean surface waters and the severe challenges in accurately measuring these values.26 Other categories potentially not measured here include the value for commercial fisheries, industrial water supplies, lower treatment costs for drinking water, and safer drinking water.27 Evidence on the existence and magnitude of the benefits from these other channels is limited, though as mentioned already, recreation and aesthetics are believed to account for a large majority of the benefits of clean surface waters. The top decile of counties includes ratios between 0.31 and 0.41. Another possible channel involves ecology. Abstract. But Supreme Court decisions in 2001 and 2006 threw protections into question for 60 percent of our nation's streams and millions of acres of wetlands. For instance, the Clean Water Act's grantmaking program has cost the U.S. government about $650 billion total, or about $1.5 million per year to make one mile of river fishable. We also observe that each additional grant results in further decreases in pollution (Online Appendix TableVI), which would be a complicated story for the timing of government human capital to explain. The Clean Water Act has protected our health for more than 40 years -- and helped our nation clean up hundreds of thousands of miles of polluted waterways. In Panel A, the main explanatory variable excludes required municipal contributions, while Panel B includes them. Dissolved oxygen deficit equals 100 minus dissolved oxygen saturation, measured in percentage points. Notes. Because most grants were given in the 1970s, we observe water pollution up to 10years before and 1525years after most grants. Second, because the difference-in-differences specification used for home values does not use upstream areas as a counterfactual, it involves the stronger identifying assumption that areas with more and fewer grants would have had similar home price trends in the absence of the grants. Propensity score for appearing in the balanced panel of cities is estimated as a function of log city population, log city total municipal expenditure, city type (municipality or township), and census division fixed effects, where city population and expenditure are averaged over all years of the data. Notes. A few pieces of evidence help evaluate the relevance of these issues. Some studies in historic or developing country settings, where drinking water regulation is limited, relate surface water quality to health (Ebenstein 2012; Greenstone and Hanna 2014; Alsan and Goldin forthcoming). Pass-through of Grants to Municipal Sewerage Capital Spending. The historic law was designed to protect all of our waters - from the smallest streams to the mightiest rivers - from pollution and destruction. One general conclusion from this literature is that the effect of federal grants on local government expenditure substantially exceeds the effect of local income changes on local government expenditure (the latter is typically around 0.10). The 1972 U.S. Clean Water Act sought "to restore and maintain the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters." This article quantifies changes in water pollution since before 1972, studies the causes of any changes, and analyzes the welfare consequences of any changes. Ninety-five percent confidence regions are in brackets. Legal attempts at resolution: CIITES pros are it is harder and takes a lot longer to get a permit to cut down trees and it protects 700 other species. We also report a range of sensitivity analyses, which are broadly in line with the main results. Analysis includes homes within a given distance of downstream river segments. Our topic is clean water and sanitation. These confidence regions do not reject the hypothesis that the ratio of the change in home values to the grants costs is zero but do reject the hypothesis that the change in home values equals the grants costs. This predictable spatial variation in the net benefits of water quality variation suggests that allowing the stringency of regulation to vary over space may give it greater net benefits (Muller and Mendelsohn 2009; Fowlie and Muller forthcoming). (1972) The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. RFF is committed to being the most widely trusted source of research insights and policy solutions leading to a healthy environment and a thriving economy. If sewer fees were particularly important, then one would expect rents to increase more than home values do; if anything, the estimates of TableV suggest the opposite. Provide federal assistance to control municipal discharges of wastewater. We analyze all these physical pollutants in levels, though Online Appendix Tables III and VI show results also in logs. The water can be sea water, sewage water or any other dirty water. Because no reference category is required in this kind of event study setting, where one observation can receive multiple treatments, for ease of interpretation, we recenter the graph line so the coefficient for the year before treatment ( = 1) equals 0. First is the choice of policy instrument. This literature also finds that federal grants that require local matching funds and specify the grants purpose, both characteristics of the Clean Water Act grants, tend to have higher pass-through rates. The wastewater treatment plants that are the focus of this article also receive effluent permits through the NPDES program, so our analysis of grants may also reflect NPDES permits distributed to wastewater treatment plants. Point sources are discrete conveyances such as pipes or man-made ditches. In years before a grant, the coefficients are statistically indistinguishable from zero, have modest magnitude, and have no clear trend (FigureIII). Online Appendix E.2 investigates heterogeneity in grants effects on water pollution and cost-effectiveness. Column (3) include all homes within 1 mile, and column (4) includes homes within 25 miles. Objective versus Subjective Assessments of Environmental Quality of Standing and Running Waters in a Large City, 1967 Census of Manufactures: Water Use in Manufacturing, National Water Quality Inventory. The positive coefficients in the richer specifications of columns (2) through (4) are consistent with increases in home values, though most are statistically insignificant. The change in the value of housing is estimated by combining the regression estimates of TableV with the baseline value of housing and rents from the census. Online Appendix TableVI shows a variety of sensitivity analyses, and Online Appendix E.2 discusses each. Benefits and Costs of the Clean Air Act Section 812 of the 1990 Amendments (Public Law 101-549) requires EPA conduct scientifically reviewed studies of the impact of the Clean Air Act on the public health, economy and environment of the United States. We find that by most measures, U.S. water pollution has declined since 1972, though some evidence suggests it may have declined at a faster rate before 1972. Other possible general equilibrium channels describe reasons the effects of cleaning up an entire river system could differ from summing up the effects of site-specific cleanups. 2013). Implemented in response to growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution in the U.S., the Clean Water Act followed the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, and preceded the Endangered Species Act of 1973, making it part of a period of landmark . Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Hence our preferred housing estimates come from difference-in-differences regressions analyzing homes within a 25-mile radius of river segments that are downstream of treatment plants. Most of these estimates are small and actually negative. This extra subsidy fell to 75% in 1984, and about 8% of projects received the subsidy for innovative technology (U.S. Government Accountability Office 1994). Estimates come from regression specifications corresponding to TableV, columns (3) and (4). However, it leaves it up to EPA. GLS estimates the effect for the average pollution reading rather than for the average plant downstream year. Brackets show 95% confidence intervals. This assumption could also fail if changes in governments effectiveness at receiving grants are correlated with governments effectiveness at operating treatment plants. We did not use these data because they focus on 1990 and later, mainly measure pesticides, and have a small sample. It remains one of our nation's most vital safeguards for the health and safety of our communities and our environment. Has Surface Water Quality Improved since the Clean Water Act? The year in these data refers to each local governments fiscal year. The largest ratios of estimated benefits to costs are for areas where outdoor fishing or swimming is common (ratio of 0.53), for high-amenity urban areas (ratio of 0.40), and in the South (ratio of 0.84). Share sensitive information only on official, secure websites. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. If you experience a problem reading a document with assistive technology, please contact us. TableIV reports estimates corresponding to equation (5). Standard errors are clustered by watershed. This article assembles an array of new data to assess water pollutions trends, causes, and welfare consequences. Choosing Environmental Policy: Comparing Instruments and Outcomes in the United States and Europe, Contingent Valuation: From Dubious to Hopeless, Nor Any Drop to Drink: Public Regulation of Water Quality. The Clean Water Act targets industry by focusing on the chemical aspects of polluted water. The 1.4 ratio and the 34-mile calculation from the previous paragraph both use survey weights. They give similar qualitative conclusions as the main results, though exact point estimates vary. Water quality improvement and resilient infrastructure Not less than $650 million (increased by $100 million over 2020 proposal) wastewater infrastructure projects municipal stormwater projects Municipal grants for stormwater with green infrastructure Agricultural nutrient pollution Harmful Algal Bloom abatement Panels A and B reflect the classic hedonic model, with fixed housing stock. River miles * pct. Keiser thanks the USDA for funding through the National Institute of Food and Agriculture Hatch project number IOW03909. Individual homes that are connected to a municipal system, use a septic system, or do not have a surface discharge do not need aNPDES permit; Industrial, municipal, and other facilities must obtain permits if their discharges go directly to surface waters. The bid function is the consumers indifference curve in the trade-off between the price of a home and the amount of attribute j embodied in the home. Panel A reports estimates of how grants affect log mean home values. We report both the double-difference and triple-difference estimators for both outcomes, and obtain qualitatively similar conclusions. TableIII presents estimates of cost-effectiveness. We considered a fourth repository, the Sustaining the Earths Watersheds: Agricultural Research Data System (STEWARDS), managed by the USDA. Although a point estimate of 0.41 for the ratio of benefits to costs does not exceed 1, one should interpret this value in light of the discussion from the next subsection that it may be a lower bound on true benefits. Incomplete information would be especially important if pollution abatement improves health. A few points are worth noting. BOD, dissolved oxygen deficits, and total suspended solids all declined at 1% to 2% a year. Nutrients were not targeted in the original Clean Water Act but are a focus of current regulation. Asterisks denote p-value < .10 (*), < .05 (**), or < .01 (***). Time of day controls are a cubic polynomial in hour of day. Q_{icy}=\alpha y_{y}+X_{icy}^{^{\,\,\prime }}\beta +\delta _{i}+\epsilon _{icy}. The Clean Water Act of 1977 was an important and controversial environmental regulation the United States Congress had passed. Others relate drinking water quality directly to health (Currie etal. 3 Pages. Adding rental units in column (3) barely changes this estimate. Our estimated ratio of the change in housing costs to total grant costs may provide a lower bound on the true benefit/cost ratio of this grant program because we abstract from nonuse (existence) values, general equilibrium effects, potential changes in sewer fees, and the roughly 5% longest recreational trips. The Clean Water Act was produced as a means for the EPA to implement pollution control programs alongside setting water quality standards for all contaminants in surface waters. Agricultural Sediment Control, Environmental Regulations, Air and Water Pollution, and Infant Mortality in India. Column (1) shows estimates for homes within a quarter mile of downstream waters. We estimate the value of wetlands for flood mitigation across the US using detailed flood claims and land use data. The Clean Water Act targets point sources like industry, municipal and state governments, and agriculture. Most recent cost-benefit analyses of the Clean Water Act estimate that a substantial share of benefits come from recreation and aesthetics channels (Lyon and Farrow 1995; Freeman 2000; USEPA 2000a). Official websites use .gov The USEPAs (2000a) cost-benefit analysis of the Clean Water Act estimates that nonuse values are a sixth as large as use values. The Clean Water Act (CWA) establishes the basic structure for regulating discharges of pollutants into the waters of the United States and regulating quality standards for surface waters. Calculations include grants given in 19622000. 2011; Poor etal. This article is published and distributed under the terms of the Oxford University Press, Standard Journals Publication Model (. The clean water act is making sure every person has clean water to drink. This early version of the CWA left sanitation planning up to the surgeon general, and allowed the Federal Works Administration to help local and state governments with prevention and cleanup efforts. FigureIV shows event study graphs, which suggest similar conclusions as these regressions. The tables separately list the different components of costs, and Section VII.C discusses possible effects of these costs on local taxes or fees. First, this is the average cost to supply water quality via Clean Water Act grants; the marginal cost, or the cost for a specific river, may differ. The curve 1 describes the bid function of one type of consumer. \end{equation}, \begin{equation} [1] It is one of the United States' first and most influential modern environmental laws, and one of the most comprehensive air quality laws in the world. Log specifications would implicitly assume that the percentage change in a rivers pollution due to a grant is the same for a river with a high background concentration, which is unlikely. The Clean Water Act's grantmaking system creates higher costs than market-based regulations, argue Keiser and Shapiro. Because water pollution flows in a known direction, areas upstream of a treatment plant provide a natural counterfactual for areas downstream of a plant. Graphs show year fixed effects plus a constant from regressions that also control for monitoring site fixed effects, a day-of-year cubic polynomial, and an hour-of-day cubic polynomial, corresponding to equation (1) from the text. They suggest similar conclusions as Panels A and B. For this reason, our preferred methodology in Section IV.B to assess how Clean Water Act grants affect water pollution uses a triple-difference estimator comparing upstream and downstream areas. 1251 et seq. The point estimate implies that each grant decreases TSS by 1%, though this is imprecise. Our approach focuses on the effects of cleaning up an individual site and is not as well suited to capture the potentially distinct effects of cleaning up entire river systems. Estimates without the basin year controls are more positive but also more sensitive to specification, which is one indication that the specification of equation (6) provides sharper identification. Row 12 of Online Appendix TableVIII reports this specification and finds similar and if anything slightly less positive change in home values than the main results estimate, which is the opposite of what one would expect if city taxes, sewer fees, or other local costs depressed home values. For example, the USEPAs (2000a,b) estimate of the benefit/cost ratio of the Clean Water Act is below 1, though the EPAs preferred estimate of the benefit/cost ratio of the Clean Air Act is 42 (USEPA 1997).28. 679 Words. The Clean Water Act fight polluted water by adopting a strategy that targets point sources of water pollution. Engineering calculations in USEPA (2000c) suggest that the efficiency with which treatment plants removed pollution grew faster in the 1960s than in the 1980s or 1990s. This is potentially informative because increased taxes, sewer fees, or changes in other municipal expenditures are likely to be concentrated in the municipal authority managing the treatment plant, whereas the change in water quality is relevant for areas further downstream. 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